Hebrew Bible: Joshua

JOSHUA

10/03/2011

Hexateuch -- some scholars consider Joshua to be a part of the first five books of the Tenakh, constituting a six-book Hexateuch

Deuteronomistic History -- Joshua was possibly written by the same group of people who wrote Deuteronomy, as seen in the similar ideals and the treaty at the end of the book.

Dating the text -- like Deuteronomy (the (D) source), Joshua was probably written during King Josiah's reform, in the 7th century BCE.

Three parts of Joshua

1. The Conquest (chaps 1-12)
2. Allotment of Land to the Tribes (13-21)
3. Epilogue (22-24)

Joshua portrayed as the "new Moses"

• Joshua brought the Israelites into Canaan, as Moses brought them out of Egypt
• He led the people on dry land through the River Jordan, as Moses did with the Red Sea
• He sent out spies into Jericho, as Moses sent spies to search out the "promise land"
• He alloted the land west of the River Jordan to the tribes, as Moses alloted the land east of it

Genre:  historical, fantasy/legend, theology, myth

        History genre:  cannot be considered "historical" in terms of the modern-day understanding, since we view historicity as having to do with concrete dates and events.  Besides, histories are always written with a lens of bias.

Historical problems

• Contextual problems
• Conquests are described sparsely and inconclusive, despite the text's claim that Joshua conquered all the "promise land."
• Archeological problems
• Jericho and Ai were excavated and showed that no people lived within them during the time the Israelites would have conquered them, according to the text. 
• The tells (mounds of demolition in layers under cities) gave evidence that neither habitation nor conquer occurred at that time. 
• However, some other excavations support the biblical record of being conquered, such as Hazor, a city to the north.
• As for the Central Highland around Jerusalem, no evidence of destruction exists.
• Although the biblical texts speaks of walled cities, no such excavations are found.
• Congruence of Culture
• Canaanite culture was much like that of the Israelites.
• One would expect an infusion of ideas/culture had the Israelites come from Egypt.

Models to Understanding Conquests

1. The Immigration Model -- a small group of people migrated to the Central Highlands (near Jerusalem) and to the North, establishing their identity as "Israelites."
2. The Conquest Model -- a people living originally in the Highlands conquer the land to the North.
3. The Revolt Model -- the Israelites join among the Canaanites to revolt against Egyptian economical oppression.  The Amarna Letters say that the Habiru (possibly "Hebrews") stirred the people against the Egyptians.
4. The Gradual Emergence Model -- *The most accepted model* -- a people migrated from the Low Lands among the Canaanites to the Highlands gradually.  They develop their identity as Israelites and either adopted or created the worship of YHWH, a move that unified them further.  Maybe YHWH worship came from runaway slaves from Egypt (e.g. the Exodus), or maybe the Midianites taught this people about their storm-god YHWH.  
5. Some people in modern American culture attest that the Israelites were a made-up people as an excuse to oppress the Palestinians.....

So how do we analyze the text??  Ideology of the Text

How was it read?

What does it teach?

*What are the assumptions? *

Crossing the Jordan -- the priests went first, carrying the Ark; the people ceremonially put up 12 stones; circumcision; Passover; end of eating manna (notice the ritualistic nature?)

Conquering Jericho -- seven days of circling the city (total of 13 times); priests and Ark go first in the procession; trumpets and war cry (again, ritualistic)

Conquering Ai -- a war loss because one soldier kept bounty, breaking the ideal of Herem.  Only after he and his family were killed could the Israelites go back and take over the city.

      Herem -- the total destruction of the whole city and all the people, being devoted to God.  Any bounty was required to go to the Lord and/or to his temple

losing battles = disobedience/breaking rituals

Renewal of the Covenant at Shechem (chap 24)

Joshua's speech starts with Abraham and then goes on to tell of God's intervention and providence for the people Israel up to the present time.  This is another instance of a treaty preamble, as was the case in Deuteronomy -- vs. 14 gives the command to obedience; vs. 26 is the display; no blessings or curses are mentioned, but it can be inferred that those of Deuteronomy also apply here.

Hebrew Bible: Leviticus and Mary Douglas

Leviticus

09/30/2011

Leviticus 11:  Dietary Laws concerning Animals

These laws are categorized by land, air, and water-dwelling animals, much like Creation categorization.

Land

• Clean animals:  having divided hooves and who chew the cud; e.g. cows
• Unclean animals:  lacking divided hoof and/or chewing the cud; e.g. rock badger

Sea

• Clean animals:  having fins and scales; e.g. fish!
• Unclean animals:  lacking fins and/or scales; e.g. squids, shrimps, lobsters

Sky

• Clean animals:  difficult to categorize; mostly NOT birds of prey; insects with jointed legs
• Unclean animals:  predators, scavengers, odd insects

What's the Purpose of these Laws?

-- Mary Douglas, The Abominations of Leviticus

Some explanations...

Epstein (pg. 45)

     for holiness by training in self-control; measuring holiness by following laws, regardless of their reason

Philo (pg. 45)

     for guarding against gluttony and revelry -- most delicious meats were forbidden

Micklem (pg. 47)

     for no reason!  the laws are irrational and pointless; no single organization rule

Professor Stein (pg. 48)

     for preserving holiness on the basis of the allegorical associations with certain animals.  Animals who represent a negative trait are unclean, and those who represent a positive trait are clean.

• mouse and weasel -- obnoxious -- unclean
• unclean birds -- violent against weak -- unclean
• cows -- contemplative and meditative (on the torah) -- clean

     However, this viewpoint is difficult to maintain due to the the multitude of and variations in interpretation.

Bishop Challoner (pg. 49)

     also for allegorical reasons

• hoof represents a division between good and evil
• no fins represents going along with the current (in contrast to prayer and purposeful movement)

Maimonides (pg. 49-50)

     for a separation from previous heathen practices and separation from Canaanite practices

Problem:  What about the other heathen practices the Israelites adapted, like sacrifice and a tabernacle?

Suggested Solution:  dietary restrictions provdided a way to transition away from heathen practices

Mary Douglas's Explanation (pg. 56)

Basis:  "Be holy for I am holy"

Principle:  an aim to be set apart and whole/complete

• sacrifices had to be "whole" and without blemish or defect
• land animals had to be ideal for farming, representing a "wholeness" in farming technique
• unclean animals were deemed to be "incomplete" in some way -- usually not fitting into a natural category like other animals of the same type
• any animal that was borderline "un-whole/incomplete" was unclean
• for example, some unclean birds ate dead meat, an act unnatural from other birds and thereby "unwhole" to eat

BOTTOM LINE:  these laws classified animals within their categories (land, air, sea) and eliminated those who were borderline cases.

Note:  see Blackboard for paper assignment concerning today's topic

Deuteronomy Re-post

09/28/2011

Deuteronomy

Timeline:

1. 1250-1000 BCE:  Emergence of Israel in Canaan
2. 1000-922 BCE:  Israelite Monarchy
3. 922 BCE:  Kingdom Splits (Judah in the South and Israel in the North)
4. 722 BCE:  Assyrian Invasion upon Israel
5. ca. 621 BCE:  King Josiah's Reform (Judah Kingdom)
1. see 2 Kings 22:1-5
2. the Book of the Law was found, which focused on centralizing worship
6. 586 BCE:  Babylonian Invasion upon Judah
1. Jerusalem Temple destroyed
2. large amounts of people were taken into Babylon
7. 539 BCE:  Persian King Cyrus allows fugitives to return to home country

Documentary Hypothesis Sources (Review):

• (J) and (E) -- written during the Monarchy:  Genesis--first 1/2 of Exodus
• (P) -- written during and after the Babylonian Exile:  second 1/2 of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers
• (D) -- written (possibly) during Josiah's Reform:  Deuteronomy--Kings

Deuteronomy

• King Josiah portrayed as a hero
• written possibly during or after his reign
• centralization of religion/worship
• **(P) and (D) seemed to be unaware of each other, making it difficult to determine which preceded the other.**
• Name:  
• from "Second telling of the Law" -- Greek
• "Devarim" -- Hebrew, meaning "These are the words..."
• Structure
• chapters 1-11:  Preamble
• also motivational speeches
• chapter 6 is central text; lays out requirements for putting the law on foreheads (Tefillin) and door frames (Mezuzah)
• 12-26:  The Law 
• corpus of the second telling of the Law
• some discrepancies exist between the first and second law (e.g. Ex. 21 and Deut. 15:12-14)
• 27-28:  Blessings and Curses
• based on behavior/obedience
• blessings:  land, children, victory, etc.
• curses:  reversal of blessings; plagues, disasters, etc.
• see similarities with the VTE (the Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon) 
• 29-34:  Appendices
• seemingly added on later
• probably the work of (P) or (R)
• The treaty laid out in Deuteronomy may possibly be a counter-treaty of the one the Israelites signed with Assyria, asserting primary and steadfast allegiance to YHWH.

Hebrew Bible: Deuteronomy

09/28/2011

Deuteronomy

Timeline:

1. 1250-1000 BCE:  Emergence of Israel in Canaan
2. 1000-922 BCE:  Israelite Monarchy
3. 922 BCE:  Kingdom Splits (Judah in the South and Israel in the North)
4. 722 BCE:  Assyrian Invasion upon Israel
5. ca. 621 BCE:  King Josiah's Reform (Judah Kingdom)
1. see 2 Kings 22:1-5
2. the Book of the Law was found, which focused on centralizing worship
6. 586 BCE:  Babylonian Invasion upon Judah
1. Jerusalem Temple destroyed
2. large amounts of people were taken into Babylon
7. 539 BCE:  Persian King Cyrus allows fugitives to return to home country

Documentary Hypothesis Sources (Review):

• (J) and (E) -- written during the Monarchy:  Genesis--first 1/2 of Exodus
• (P) -- written during and after the Babylonian Exile:  second 1/2 of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers
• (D) -- written (possibly) during Josiah's Reform:  Deuteronomy--Kings

Deuteronomy

• King Josiah portrayed as a hero
• written possibly during or after his reign
• centralization of religion/worship
• **(P) and (D) seemed to be unaware of each other, making it difficult to determine which preceded the other.**
• Name:  
• from "Second telling of the Law" -- Greek
• "Devarim" -- Hebrew, meaning "These are the words..."
• Structure
• chapters 1-11:  Preamble
• also motivational speeches
• chapter 6 is central text; lays out requirements for putting the law on foreheads (Tefillin) and door frames (Mezuzah)
• 12-26:  The Law 
• corpus of the second telling of the Law
• some discrepancies exist between the first and second law (e.g. Ex. 21 and Deut. 15:12-14)
• 27-28:  Blessings and Curses
• based on behavior/obedience
• blessings:  land, children, victory, etc.
• curses:  reversal of blessings; plagues, disasters, etc.
• see similarities with the VTE (the Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon) 
• 29-34:  Appendices
• seemingly added on later
• probably the work of (P) or (R)
• The treaty laid out in Deuteronomy may possibly be a counter-treaty of the one the Israelites signed with Assyria, asserting primary and steadfast allegiance to YHWH.

Hebrew Bible: the (P) source, Leviticus, and Numbers

09/26/2011

(P) Source -- geneologies, Creation, flood and circumcision accounts

Exodus 25-40 -- Tabernacle (P)

• Think of it as a La-z-boy or a tent
• the place where God's presence resided
• visually like a cloud

Leviticus 1-16 -- Purity vs. Impurity (P)
Leviticus 17-26 -- Holiness Code (H)
Leviticus 27-(end) -- (P)
Numbers -- all (P), yet (P) most likely incorporates (J) and (E) narratives

Two purposes of the (P) source narratives

1. Authors wanted everyone to know what it meant to be "pure."
1. impurities
1. necrophilia (nearness to dead things)
2. eating an animal found dead
3. pigs
4. childbirth
5. menstrual cycles, etc., etc...
2. ways to become pure
1. sacrifices
2. priests!  without them, nothing can be acceptable to God
3. Leviticus 16:  Qapparah festival ("purification" in Hebrew)
1. basis for Yom Kippur
2. once a year a high priest (originally Aaron) would atone for the sins of the entire community
3. two goats:  one is sacrified, and the other is released into the wild at the mercy of Ahazel
1. Ahazel was a demon most likely
2. why was this included in the final biblical composition?
4. the festival was highly participatory and emotionally powerful
2. Authors included supportive narratives.
1. Leviticus 10:1-3
1. Aaron's sons, the priests
2. their unholy fire brought upon their sudden death
2. Numbers 12
1. a mini-rebellion led by Aaron and Miriam (Moses' siblings)
2. they were upset with Moses' extreme authority
3. Miriam suffers leprosy as a consequence but nothing happens to Aaron
4. message:  DON'T MESS WITH THE HIERARCY
5. Hierarchy:  Moses --> Aaron and sons --> Levites --> everyone else
3. Numbers 16
1. a large rebellion led by the Levite Korah
2. he questions Moses and the limitations of holiness to the priests exclusively
3. as a result, all the rebellers die in a pit
4. Numbers 25
1. a man takes a Moabite woman into his test in front of the assembly
2. Phineas the priest kills both of them with a spear (out of zeal)
3. the plauge upon the people for inter-marrying with such women ended
4. But Moses married a Moabite woman!
1. He was above the law, not to be questioned.
5. The stories stress the importance of submitting to the hierarchy, do the holiness rituals, and not to question Moses' authority.

Leviticus (Vayiqra in Hebrew, meaning "And he said...")

Key characters:  Aaronide priests and Levite helpers

Numbers (Bamidbar in Hebrew, meaning "In the desert...")

• census data (numbers)
• winderness travels

Hebrew Bible: The Ten Commandments

But first...

The Book of the Covenant, Part 2

09/23/2011

Exodus 23:  Festivals -- the first commandment for festivals

1. The Feast of Unleavened Bread
1. in reference to the flight from Egypt, when the bread was not given time to rise
2. later associated with the Passover
2. The Feast of the Harvest
1. a.k.a. the Feast of the Firstfruits
2. celebrated when harvest began
3. The Feast of Ingathering
1. celebreated at the end of the harvest season
2. later associated with the Feast of Tabernacles

verse 19:  Why were the Israelites commanded not to boil a lamb in its mother's milk?

    Possible reasons:

• the symbolic meanings of life in the milk and death of the lamb
• good practice in animal husbandry (concerning reproductive health)
• differentiation from Canaanite cuisine

verse 22:  God swore to protect the Israelites if they were obedient to Him.  Unlike the required obedience in this new covenant, the Patriarchs only needed to believe to be blessed.  Still, this may simply be due to the audience God was speaking to.

        The Ten Commandments and the Book of the Covenant are much like a Middle Eastern treaty -- note the display in 24:7 and the witnesses in 24:11 (the elders on the mountain with Moses).

The Ten Commandments

Exodus 20 vs. Deuteronomy 5

Similar commandments:

1. no other gods before the Lord
2. no idols
3. no bowing down to idols
4. no abuse of the Lord's name (swearing upon it)
5. **different** Sabbath commandment
6. honor father and mother
7. no murder
8. no adultery
9. no stealing
10. no bearing false witness (perjury)
11. **different** coveting commandment

Differences:

Exodus 20                                                          Deuteronomy 5           

"remember the Sabbath and keep it holy"          "observe the Sabbath and keep it holy" 

   Creation as basis (resting on the 7th day)                             Exodus as basis                   

               no coveting neighbor's house                               no coveting a neighbor's wife                      

no coveting neighbor's possessions (including wife)             no coveting neighbor's possessions        

Why TEN Commandments??

•  Scripture attests to "ten words" of the covenant
• religous authorites have combined some commandments into one
• see chart with Exodus 20 in NRSV Bible

One last note:  rabbis establish their authority in the interpretation of the Torah (e.g. "safeguards," attesting to the process of passing down of the Torah (God --> Moses --> Joshua --> elders --> prophets --> teachers/rabbis)

 



Hebrew Bible: Siani Theophany

Exodus:  Escape from Egypt
          Siani Theophany

09/21/2011

Thought to ponder:  Which tradition is more important to the development of the Israelite nation?

Middle Eastern Vassal Treaties:  treaty in which a powerful patron protects a protege, and the protege  

                                                      must serve the patron

Organization:

1. Preamble -- where the patron established his own qualifications
2. Historical Prologue -- an explanation of why the patron is patron over the vassal (like the Exodus)
3. Stipulations -- where the patron lays out the terms of the covenant for both sides
4. Display -- where both sides see the treaty (?)
5. Witnesses  -- where witnesses from both "sides" are stated
6. Curses/Blessings -- dependent on stipulations; acts of the patron (e.g. Persian box torture :) )

The structure of the biblical covenant is much like the typical Middle Eastern treaties, especially those of the Hittites.  This gives evidence that the covenant was written during the same time as the Hittite treaties.

Two Theories of when the Covenant was historically established:

1. The Israelites actually had the entire covenant during their wandering in the desert, but then they forgot it.  King Josiah later found it and reinstated it.  Finally, the prophets call the people to return to the covenant.
2. The Israelites never had the covenant in the desert.  Instead, it was established either during the Babylonian Exile or during the reign of King Josiah.  The prophets attempt to enforce the new covenant.

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What happened at Mount Siani?

     Moses goes up and down the the mountain SEVERAL TIMES to hear :from God.  This is a theophany!  (a.k.a. a manifestation of YHWH)

     The events are recorded in both Exodus and Deuteronomy.

Exodus 19:  God tells Moses to get the people ready for a community theophany

Exodus 20:  The Ten Commandments, a.k.a. the Decalogue

• Henotheism is a possibility; that is, the belief in several gods, but they are all "inconsequential" in comparison to one God.
• Did God perhaps have a wife in Ancient Israel (Asherah)?

Exodus 21-24:  The Book of the Covenant

• Verse 1 established the new "book"
• consisted of many legal regulations
• alleged to the fact that slavery dealt with economy
• established laws realistic to that society
• Laws appear to be for a sedentary people
• Does this mean that covenant came once the Israelites were a formal nation?
• 
  
• Death Penalty Requirements:
• killing another human (striking mortally)
• striking a parent
• kidnapping
• cursing parents
• speaking against the leader
• LIFE FOR LIFE
• 
  
• Just punishment sought to be established ("eye for an eye," etc.), compared to the barbarity of the culture.

Exodus 22:29-30 -- support for sacrificing firstborn sons??  See Exodus 35.